The History of Rebuilding Faces

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Above: Reconstruction of the faces of Princes Charlier and Richard III. Image courtesy of The Guardian. 

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Have you ever wondered if George Washington actually looked like the face you see every day on the one-dollar bill? Or if Julius Caesar truly resembled his perfect marble statues? The emerging science of facial reconstruction explores just that. Combining anatomical knowledge with computational modeling and art, scientists can generate three-dimensional renditions of unknown or long-deceased faces just from a skull. 

While facial reconstruction may seem novel, the idea of recreating a person’s image from their skull has “been a part of the human story for thousands of years.” During the Neolithic age, old skulls were dug up and decorated with pigment, paint, and clay to look like the deceased individual. The artistic element of facial reconstruction blossomed during the Renaissance when artists created “death mask art” using wax models to romanticize and commemorate deceased individuals. Advancements in artistic techniques and improved knowledge of human anatomy during the Renaissance enabled facial reconstruction to become a complex and widespread field. 

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Above: The hand-painted death mask of Mary Queen of Scots. Image courtesy of Biography.

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During the 1800s, facial reconstruction became a useful tool in forensic sciences. Policemen would often collaborate with scientists to identify unknown murder victims using facial reconstruction. As the 20th century began, the use of facial reconstruction shifted towards archaeological applications. For instance, in 1908, a global team of scientists reconstructed a Neanderthal skull dating back to around 100,000 years ago using plaster and clay modeling. Finally, in the 20th and 21st centuries, scientists began building increasingly realistic depictions of ancient faces using modern computer modeling techniques. 

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A Model of Wax and Plastic

Above: The reconstruction of a Neanderthal who died nearly 60,000 years ago. Image courtesy of the Penn Museum.

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Researchers possess countless methods of facial reconstruction with different technical applications and types of materials. While physical modeling may involve the use of clay and plastering onto a skull, new computer-aided design technology can enhance and accelerate the process. Today, the processes of rebuilding faces from an archaeological perspective all rely on the same skeleton. (pun unintended)

First, scientists begin with a background check on the life of the individual they are attempting to recreate. Using isotopic analysis, scientists can deduce everything from the person’s diet to their geographic history, enabling researchers to better understand the subject’s lifestyle. Scientists can even analyze the teeth of the skull for the presence of unique strontium signatures that suggest possible migration patterns in that person’s life. More recent developments in genomics technology allow shockingly accurate DNA analysis of ancient samples, verifying information that previously would have been guessed by the modeler. Specifically, DNA analysis can now identify characteristics that have long decayed and faded away, such as skin color, hair color, eye color, and texture. Swedish reconstructionist Oscar Nilsson calls this technology a “game-changer” for facial reconstruction.

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Above: A scientist points out the teeth of a child’s skull that indicate that the child had a fever at a young age. Image courtesy of National Geographic.

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After gathering all this data on the sample, scientists can connect the dots between the qualities of the skull to their subject’s lifestyle. For instance, ethnic origins deduced from DNA analysis can influence the skin color of the reconstructed face, while evidence of a diet rich in sugars and carbohydrates could suggest dental erosion in the final model. When working with ancient samples that have extremely limited data, any information helps scientists create the most accurate possible facial depiction.

Following this initial data collection, the construction of the face begins: layers of clay and shapes are carefully molded onto a replica of the original skull. With a knowledge of human anatomy, scientists reconstruct individual muscles and parts of cartilage with solid pieces of clay and apply thinner layers of clay as the skin. In addition to clay, many reconstructionists make use of pegs or markers to not only hold the added material in place but also serve as an indicator of tissue depth and how much clay should be added. 

Above: A computerized image of a model showing the layer of muscle and added pegs. Image courtesy of the Journal of Anatomy.

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From there, researchers add the final touches to fully bring the molded skull to life. Prosthetic eyeballs, synthetic hair, fake molars, and carefully added pigment all transform the molded skinless face into a human being. 

However, adding these features to the face generates controversy over whether facial reconstruction is art or science. As such, some scientists argue that the addition of eyes, ear shapes, and nose contour are all simply products of the reconstructionist’s imagination. On the other hand, proponents of facial reconstruction argue that the use of historical images and archaeological data provides the most scientifically accurate portrayal of an individual.

Apart from hands-on reconstruction, computers have begun to play an important role in reconstructing faces. Not only do computers integrate computer tomography scans of the skull with DNA analysis, but 3D rendering programs can rapidly recreate the face of an individual without the need to laboriously plaster hundreds of layers of clay. The ability of a computer to more accurately scan and probe a skull, as the Haptic feedback system does, digitizes the process of facial reconstruction. Overall, the addition of computer modeling and technology significantly augments the accuracy, efficacy, and speed of facial reconstructions. 

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Applications of Facial Reconstruction

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From cases of missing individuals to remains found in important archaeological sites, the applications of facial reconstruction are broad and impactful. With the addition of computer modeling and modern genomic technology, facial reconstruction has enabled numerous scientific discoveries that bring ancient history to the present. 

Just over a month ago, scientists made a recent breakthrough in ancient archaeology by successfully reconstructing the face of the famous preserved mummy of an Incan girl, sacrificed in the frozen mountains of the Andes. Dubbed “Juanita,” this mummy was noted for its remarkable intactness—even her internal organs and blood were preserved. 

Reconstructionist and sculptor Oscar Nilsson led his team in over 400 hours of work, eventually generating an extremely realistic illustration of what Juanita may have looked like. This insight into ancient Incan society enables us to better understand the rich culture and history of this region and its impacts on today’s society.

Above: The process of rebuilding Juanita’s face (left) and the final rendition (right). Image courtesy of Scientific American.

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Apart from archaeological applications, facial reconstruction has solved many puzzles of forensic science. It is most commonly used to identify unknown bodies or confirm victims in murder or missing persons cases. The advancements made in facial reconstruction have enabled law enforcement to address long-standing mysteries. 

In 2019, facial reconstruction helped identify a female victim from bones found on the side of a Louisiana highway nearly 40 years ago. Not only was the victim identified and the victim’s family given solace, but the killers were apprehended. 

Ultimately, facial reconstruction has proven to be a vast and rapidly developing field of science with broad applications. Eventually, this science may be able to put a face to the most famous names in history.